CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
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What is Climate?
-Climate is more than "the average state of the atmosphere" because a complete climate description should also include variations and extremes to accurately portray the total character of an area.
-The most important elements in climate descriptions are temperature and precipitation inasmuch as they have the greatest influence on people and their activities and also have as important impact on the distribution of vegetation and the development of soils.
Climate Classification
Perhaps the first attempt at climate classification was made by the ancient Greeks, who divided each hemisphere into three zones: torrid, temperate, and frigid.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, many climate-classification schemes have been devised.
The classification of climates is the product of human ingenuity and its value is determined largely by its intended use.
Köppen Classification of Climate
For decades, a climate classification devised by Vladimir Köppen (1846–1940) has been the best-known and most used tool for presenting the world pattern of climates.
The Köppen classification uses easily obtained data: mean monthly and annual values of temperature and precipitation.
Furthermore, the criteria are unambiguous, simple to apply, and divide the world into climate regions in a realistic way.
Köppen believed that the distribution of natural vegetation was the best expression of an overall climate.
Consequently, the boundaries he chose were largely based on the limits of certain plant associations.
Köppen’s Classification Scheme
Köppen recognized five principal climate groups, each designated with a capital letter:
-A (humid tropical),
-B (dry),
-C (humid middle-latitude, mild winters),
-D (humid middle-latitude, severe winters), and
-E (polar).
Four groups (A, C, D, E) are defined by temperature.
The fifth, the B group, has precipitation as its primary criterion.
Climate Controls
Order exists in the distribution of climate elements and the pattern of climates is not by chance.
The world's climate pattern reflects a regular and dependable operation of the major climate controls.
The major controls of climate are:
(1) latitude (variations in the receipt of solar energy and temperature differences are largely a function of latitude),
(2) land/water influence (marine climates are generally mild, while continental climates are typically much more extreme),
(3) geographic position and prevailing winds (the moderating effect of water is more pronounced along the windward side of a continent),
(4) mountains and highlands (mountain barriers prevent maritime air masses from reaching far inland, trigger orographic rainfall, and where they are extensive, create their own climatic regions),
(5) ocean currents (poleward-moving currents cause air temperatures to be warmer than would be expected), and
(6) pressure and wind systems (the world distribution of precipitation is closely related to the distribution of Earth's major pressure and wind systems).
Type A Climate
Situated along the equator, the wet tropics (Af, Am) constant high temperatures and year-round rainfall combine to produce the most luxuriant vegetation in climatic realm—the tropical rain forest.
Temperatures in these regions usually average 25°C (77°F) or more each month and the daily temperature variations characteristically greatly exceed seasonal differences.
Precipitation in Af and Am climates is normally from 175 to 250 centimeters (68 to 98 inches) per year and is more variable than temperature, both seasonally and from place to place.
Thermally induced convection coupled with convergence along the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) leads to widespread ascent of the warm, humid, unstable air and ideal conditions for precipitation.
Type B Climate
Dry regions of the world cover about 30 percent of Earth's land area.
Other than their meager yearly rainfall, the most characteristic feature of dry climates is that precipitation is very unreliable.
Climatologists define a “dry climate” as one in which the yearly precipitation is less than the potential water loss by evaporation.
To define the boundary between dry and humid climates, the Köppen classification uses formulas that involve three variables:
(1) average annual precipitation,
(2) average annual temperature, and
(3) seasonal distribution of precipitation.
Type C Climate
Humid middle-latitude climates with mild winters (C climates) occur where the average temperature of the coldest month is less than 18°C (64°F) but above -3°C (27°F).
Several C climate subgroups exist
Type D Climate
Humid continental climates with severe winters (D climates) experience severe winters.
The average temperature of the coldest month is -3°C (27°F) or below and the average temperature of the warmest month exceeds 10°C (50°F).
The greatest annual temperature ranges on Earth occur here.
Type E Climate
Polar climates (ET, EF) are those in which the mean temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F).
Annual temperature ranges are extreme, with the lowest annual means on the planet.
Although polar climates are classified as humid, precipitation is generally meager, with many nonmarine stations receiving less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) annually.
Polar Climates
Two types of polar climates are recognized.
Found almost exclusively in North America, the tundra climate (ET), marked by the 10°C (50°F) summer isotherm at its equatorward limit, is a treeless region of grasses, sedges, mosses, and lichens with permanently frozen subsoil, called permafrost.
The ice cap climate (EF) does not have a single monthly mean above 0°C. Consequently, the growth of vegetation is prohibited, and the landscape is one of permanent ice and snow.
Highland Climates
Highland climates are characterized by a great diversity of climatic conditions over a small area.
In North America, highland climates characterize the Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, and the mountains and interior plateaus of Mexico.
Although the best known climatic effects of an increased altitude are lower temperatures, greater precipitation due to orographic lifting is also common.
Variety and changeability best describe highland climates.
Because atmospheric conditions fluctuate with altitude and exposure to the Sun's rays, a nearly limitless variety of local climates occur in mountainous regions.
-The most important elements in climate descriptions are temperature and precipitation inasmuch as they have the greatest influence on people and their activities and also have as important impact on the distribution of vegetation and the development of soils.
Climate Classification
Perhaps the first attempt at climate classification was made by the ancient Greeks, who divided each hemisphere into three zones: torrid, temperate, and frigid.
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, many climate-classification schemes have been devised.
The classification of climates is the product of human ingenuity and its value is determined largely by its intended use.
Köppen Classification of Climate
For decades, a climate classification devised by Vladimir Köppen (1846–1940) has been the best-known and most used tool for presenting the world pattern of climates.
The Köppen classification uses easily obtained data: mean monthly and annual values of temperature and precipitation.
Furthermore, the criteria are unambiguous, simple to apply, and divide the world into climate regions in a realistic way.
Köppen believed that the distribution of natural vegetation was the best expression of an overall climate.
Consequently, the boundaries he chose were largely based on the limits of certain plant associations.
Köppen’s Classification Scheme
Köppen recognized five principal climate groups, each designated with a capital letter:
-A (humid tropical),
-B (dry),
-C (humid middle-latitude, mild winters),
-D (humid middle-latitude, severe winters), and
-E (polar).
Four groups (A, C, D, E) are defined by temperature.
The fifth, the B group, has precipitation as its primary criterion.
Climate Controls
Order exists in the distribution of climate elements and the pattern of climates is not by chance.
The world's climate pattern reflects a regular and dependable operation of the major climate controls.
The major controls of climate are:
(1) latitude (variations in the receipt of solar energy and temperature differences are largely a function of latitude),
(2) land/water influence (marine climates are generally mild, while continental climates are typically much more extreme),
(3) geographic position and prevailing winds (the moderating effect of water is more pronounced along the windward side of a continent),
(4) mountains and highlands (mountain barriers prevent maritime air masses from reaching far inland, trigger orographic rainfall, and where they are extensive, create their own climatic regions),
(5) ocean currents (poleward-moving currents cause air temperatures to be warmer than would be expected), and
(6) pressure and wind systems (the world distribution of precipitation is closely related to the distribution of Earth's major pressure and wind systems).
Type A Climate
Situated along the equator, the wet tropics (Af, Am) constant high temperatures and year-round rainfall combine to produce the most luxuriant vegetation in climatic realm—the tropical rain forest.
Temperatures in these regions usually average 25°C (77°F) or more each month and the daily temperature variations characteristically greatly exceed seasonal differences.
Precipitation in Af and Am climates is normally from 175 to 250 centimeters (68 to 98 inches) per year and is more variable than temperature, both seasonally and from place to place.
Thermally induced convection coupled with convergence along the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) leads to widespread ascent of the warm, humid, unstable air and ideal conditions for precipitation.
Type B Climate
Dry regions of the world cover about 30 percent of Earth's land area.
Other than their meager yearly rainfall, the most characteristic feature of dry climates is that precipitation is very unreliable.
Climatologists define a “dry climate” as one in which the yearly precipitation is less than the potential water loss by evaporation.
To define the boundary between dry and humid climates, the Köppen classification uses formulas that involve three variables:
(1) average annual precipitation,
(2) average annual temperature, and
(3) seasonal distribution of precipitation.
Type C Climate
Humid middle-latitude climates with mild winters (C climates) occur where the average temperature of the coldest month is less than 18°C (64°F) but above -3°C (27°F).
Several C climate subgroups exist
Type D Climate
Humid continental climates with severe winters (D climates) experience severe winters.
The average temperature of the coldest month is -3°C (27°F) or below and the average temperature of the warmest month exceeds 10°C (50°F).
The greatest annual temperature ranges on Earth occur here.
Type E Climate
Polar climates (ET, EF) are those in which the mean temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F).
Annual temperature ranges are extreme, with the lowest annual means on the planet.
Although polar climates are classified as humid, precipitation is generally meager, with many nonmarine stations receiving less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) annually.
Polar Climates
Two types of polar climates are recognized.
Found almost exclusively in North America, the tundra climate (ET), marked by the 10°C (50°F) summer isotherm at its equatorward limit, is a treeless region of grasses, sedges, mosses, and lichens with permanently frozen subsoil, called permafrost.
The ice cap climate (EF) does not have a single monthly mean above 0°C. Consequently, the growth of vegetation is prohibited, and the landscape is one of permanent ice and snow.
Highland Climates
Highland climates are characterized by a great diversity of climatic conditions over a small area.
In North America, highland climates characterize the Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, and the mountains and interior plateaus of Mexico.
Although the best known climatic effects of an increased altitude are lower temperatures, greater precipitation due to orographic lifting is also common.
Variety and changeability best describe highland climates.
Because atmospheric conditions fluctuate with altitude and exposure to the Sun's rays, a nearly limitless variety of local climates occur in mountainous regions.
Welcome to the tundra
WELCOME TO THE TUNDRA, WE HAVE THE X-GAMES...
IF YOU WANT TO GO SNOWMOBILIN' IT'S THE TIME OF DAY!!!!
-to the tune of Welcome to the jungle-
THE TUNDRA
Type E Climate
Polar climates (ET, EF) are those in which the mean temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F).
Annual temperature ranges are extreme, with the lowest annual means on the planet.
Although polar climates are classified as humid, precipitation is generally meager, with many non-marine stations receiving less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) annually.
Two types of polar climates are recognized.
Found almost exclusively in North America, the tundra climate (ET), marked by the 50°F summer isotherm at its equator-ward limit, is a treeless region of grasses, sedge, mosses, and lichens with permanently frozen subsoil, called permafrost.
The ice cap climate (EF) does not have a single monthly mean above 0°C. Consequently, the growth of vegetation is prohibited, and the landscape is one of permanent ice and snow.
IF YOU WANT TO GO SNOWMOBILIN' IT'S THE TIME OF DAY!!!!
-to the tune of Welcome to the jungle-
THE TUNDRA
Type E Climate
Polar climates (ET, EF) are those in which the mean temperature of the warmest month is below 10°C (50°F).
Annual temperature ranges are extreme, with the lowest annual means on the planet.
Although polar climates are classified as humid, precipitation is generally meager, with many non-marine stations receiving less than 25 centimeters (10 inches) annually.
Two types of polar climates are recognized.
Found almost exclusively in North America, the tundra climate (ET), marked by the 50°F summer isotherm at its equator-ward limit, is a treeless region of grasses, sedge, mosses, and lichens with permanently frozen subsoil, called permafrost.
The ice cap climate (EF) does not have a single monthly mean above 0°C. Consequently, the growth of vegetation is prohibited, and the landscape is one of permanent ice and snow.
WHERE TUNDRAS LOCATED AROUND THE WORLD
AVERAGE TEMPERATURES YEAR ROUND
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION
WHAT TO PACK
It is freezing here...I'm serious, but it is incredibly fun.
It is freezing here...I'm serious, but it is incredibly fun.
COME AND SEE THE CARIBOU
AND THE GRIZZLIES
Caribou have two layers of fur covering their bodies.The caribou's large feet have 4 toes. Two are small and called "dew claws." Two are large crescent-shaped toes that support most of their weight.
The grizzly has a heavy, stout body, a big head, and short tail. It has a distinctive hump between its shoulder blades. Its nose is dished, and turns up at the end, unlike the black bear, whose nose arches down.
AND THE GRIZZLIES
Caribou have two layers of fur covering their bodies.The caribou's large feet have 4 toes. Two are small and called "dew claws." Two are large crescent-shaped toes that support most of their weight.
The grizzly has a heavy, stout body, a big head, and short tail. It has a distinctive hump between its shoulder blades. Its nose is dished, and turns up at the end, unlike the black bear, whose nose arches down.
Here are some plants to keep an eye out for
Caribou moss(right)
Although it is called caribou moss, it is actually a lichen. Lichen can survive for long periods of time without water. They just dry out and go dormant when there is little water or light. They can begin to grow again even after very long periods of dormancy.
bearberry(left)
Bearberry gets its name because bears like to feast on these berries. Since bearberry is a low growing plant it can stay out of the wind chill. It's fine silky hairs also help to keep it warm. Leathery leaves are also an adaptation to the cold of the tundra.
Caribou moss(right)
Although it is called caribou moss, it is actually a lichen. Lichen can survive for long periods of time without water. They just dry out and go dormant when there is little water or light. They can begin to grow again even after very long periods of dormancy.
bearberry(left)
Bearberry gets its name because bears like to feast on these berries. Since bearberry is a low growing plant it can stay out of the wind chill. It's fine silky hairs also help to keep it warm. Leathery leaves are also an adaptation to the cold of the tundra.
5 facts about the tundra
1. The word tundra comes from the Finnish word tunturia which means treeless land.
2. Because of the extreme temperatures, most organisms get their nutrients from the decaying of dead organic material.
3. The tundra biome has about 400 varieties of flowers but only 48 different animals.
4. The tundra biome covers about 20% of the Earth.
5. During the summer, it is daylight 24 hours a day.
2. Because of the extreme temperatures, most organisms get their nutrients from the decaying of dead organic material.
3. The tundra biome has about 400 varieties of flowers but only 48 different animals.
4. The tundra biome covers about 20% of the Earth.
5. During the summer, it is daylight 24 hours a day.
global climate change caused by humans
Emissions from the Developed and Developing World
Global Temperatures since 1880
Temperatures and Greenhouse Gas Concentrations in Past 400,000 Years
•No one was around thousands of years ago to measure temperatures so we use other indirect measurements. Some of these are
–Changes in species compositions
–Chemical analyses of ice
•No one was around thousands of years ago to measure temperatures so we use other indirect measurements. Some of these are
–Changes in species compositions
–Chemical analyses of ice
Putting It Together
•We know that an increase in CO2 in the atmosphere causes a greater capacity for warming through the greenhouse effect.
•When the Earth experiences higher temperatures, the oceans warm and cannot contain as much CO2 gas and, as a result, they release CO2 into the atmosphere.
•We know that an increase in CO2 in the atmosphere causes a greater capacity for warming through the greenhouse effect.
•When the Earth experiences higher temperatures, the oceans warm and cannot contain as much CO2 gas and, as a result, they release CO2 into the atmosphere.
Consequences to the Environment Because of Global Warming
-Melting of polar ice caps, Greenland and Antarctica
-Melting of many glaciers around the world
-Melting of permafrost
-Rising of sea levels due to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets and as water warms it expands
-Heat waves
-Cold spells
-Change in precipitation patterns
-Increase in storm intensity
-Shift in ocean currents
Consequences to Living Organisms
•Wild plants and animals can be affected. The growing season for plants has changed and animals have the potential to be harmed if they can’t move to better climates.
•Humans may have to relocate, some diseases like those carried by mosquitoes could increase and there could be economic consequences.
The Kyoto Protocol
•In 1997, representatives of the nations of the world went to Kyoto, Japan to discuss how best to control the emissions contributing to global warming.
•The agreement was that emissions of greenhouse gases from all industrialized countries will be reduced to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012.
Developing nations did not have emission limits imposed by the protocol
Carbon Sequestration
-An approach involving taking CO2 out of the atmosphere.
-Some methods include storing carbon in agricultural soils or retiring agricultural land and allowing it to become pasture or forest.
-Researchers are looking at cost-effective ways of capturing CO2 from the air, from coal-burning power stations, and from other emission sources.
-This captured CO2 would be compressed and pumped into abandoned oil wells or the deep ocean.
Natural Phenomenon that Impacts the Worlds Climate
Climate Vs. Weather
•Weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate, however, is the average of weather over time and space.
•
•An easy way to remember the difference is that climate is what you expect, like a very hot summer, and weather is what you get, like a hot day with pop-up thunderstorms.
•
•Volcanoes can have HUGE affects on the weather but typically, only the really big eruptions will have noticeable effects on the climate.
El Nino and La Nina
-Melting of polar ice caps, Greenland and Antarctica
-Melting of many glaciers around the world
-Melting of permafrost
-Rising of sea levels due to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets and as water warms it expands
-Heat waves
-Cold spells
-Change in precipitation patterns
-Increase in storm intensity
-Shift in ocean currents
Consequences to Living Organisms
•Wild plants and animals can be affected. The growing season for plants has changed and animals have the potential to be harmed if they can’t move to better climates.
•Humans may have to relocate, some diseases like those carried by mosquitoes could increase and there could be economic consequences.
The Kyoto Protocol
•In 1997, representatives of the nations of the world went to Kyoto, Japan to discuss how best to control the emissions contributing to global warming.
•The agreement was that emissions of greenhouse gases from all industrialized countries will be reduced to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012.
Developing nations did not have emission limits imposed by the protocol
Carbon Sequestration
-An approach involving taking CO2 out of the atmosphere.
-Some methods include storing carbon in agricultural soils or retiring agricultural land and allowing it to become pasture or forest.
-Researchers are looking at cost-effective ways of capturing CO2 from the air, from coal-burning power stations, and from other emission sources.
-This captured CO2 would be compressed and pumped into abandoned oil wells or the deep ocean.
Natural Phenomenon that Impacts the Worlds Climate
Climate Vs. Weather
•Weather can change from minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate, however, is the average of weather over time and space.
•
•An easy way to remember the difference is that climate is what you expect, like a very hot summer, and weather is what you get, like a hot day with pop-up thunderstorms.
•
•Volcanoes can have HUGE affects on the weather but typically, only the really big eruptions will have noticeable effects on the climate.
El Nino and La Nina
El Niño conditions:
surface current reversed, pushing warm water toward the Eastern Pacific
Upwelling repressed à Unusually warm water across Equatorial Pacific
upwelling- hot water moves out and cool water moves in
La Niña:
Stronger trade Winds than normal,
causing a strong upwelling of cold water in the Eastern Pacific
hot water moves out and back in and collides with the cold water
Sunspots and climate
An influence of solar irradiance variations on Earth’s surface climate has been repeatedly suggested, based on correlations between solar variability and meteorological variables.
Low solar activity can enhance cold winters in northern Europe and the United States, with little direct change in globally averaged temperature.
•An eruption can cause warming and cooling.
–An addition of carbon dioxide contributes to greenhouse warming.
–An addition to sulfurous gases induces cooling, because they turn into droplets of sulfuric acid that absorb and reflect sunlight, and cut down the amount of heat that reaches the ground.
•But most documented cases show a net cooling effect.
surface current reversed, pushing warm water toward the Eastern Pacific
Upwelling repressed à Unusually warm water across Equatorial Pacific
upwelling- hot water moves out and cool water moves in
La Niña:
Stronger trade Winds than normal,
causing a strong upwelling of cold water in the Eastern Pacific
hot water moves out and back in and collides with the cold water
Sunspots and climate
An influence of solar irradiance variations on Earth’s surface climate has been repeatedly suggested, based on correlations between solar variability and meteorological variables.
Low solar activity can enhance cold winters in northern Europe and the United States, with little direct change in globally averaged temperature.
•An eruption can cause warming and cooling.
–An addition of carbon dioxide contributes to greenhouse warming.
–An addition to sulfurous gases induces cooling, because they turn into droplets of sulfuric acid that absorb and reflect sunlight, and cut down the amount of heat that reaches the ground.
•But most documented cases show a net cooling effect.